Rodent-borne parasites in Qatar: A possible risk at the human-animal-ecosystem interface.

Rodents are known reservoirs for a diverse group of zoonotic pathogens that can pose a threat to human health. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate these pathogens to institute prevention and control measures. To achieve this, the current study was conducted to investigate the frequency of different parasites in commensal rodents in Qatar. A total of 148 rodents, including Rattus norvegicus, Rattus rattus, and Mus musculus were captured using traps placed in different habitats such as agricultural and livestock farms, residential areas, and other localities. Blood, feces, ectoparasite, and visceral organs were collected for gross, microscopic, immunological, and molecular analysis. The study identified 10 different parasites, including Capillaria annulosa, Eimeria spp., Giardia spp., Hymenolepis diminuta, Mastophorus muris, Ornithonyssus bacoti, Taenia taeniaeformis, Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma lewisi, and Xenopsylla astia. Overall, 62.2% of the rodents tested positive for at least one parasite species. Helminths were found to be the most prevalent parasites (46.0%), followed by ectoparasites (31.8%), and protozoa (10.1%). However, individually, X. astia was the most prevalent (31.8%), whereas C. annulosa was the least common (0.7%). The prevalence of X. astia and H. diminuta significantly differed between habitats (p < 0.05). The sequence analysis of Hymenolepis spp. was closely related to the previously reported H. diminuta in Iran, China, and Mexico. In conclusion, the study identified a diverse range of rodent-borne parasites that are important to public health, with most of them being recorded for the first time among commensal rodents in Qatar.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in animals of the Arabian Peninsula between 2000-2020: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a zoonotic parasite that can be transmitted from animals to humans, with felids acting as its definitive host. Thus, understanding the epidemiology of this parasite in animal populations is vital to controlling its transmission to humans as well as to other animal groups. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to summarise and analyse reports of T. gondii infection in animal species residing in the Arabian Peninsula. METHODS: It was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA), with relevant studies being retrieved from MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar and ScienceDirect. All articles published in Arabic or English languages between January 2000 and December 2020 were screened for eligibility. Random effects model was used to calculate the pooled prevalence of T. gondii infection in different animal populations which were found to harbour this infection. The critical appraisal tool for prevalence studies designed by the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) was used to assess the risk of bias in all included studies. RESULTS: A total of 15 studies were retrieved, reporting prevalence estimates from 4 countries in this region and in 13 animal species. Quantitative meta-analysis estimated a pooled prevalence of 43% in felids [95% confidence interval (CI) = 23-64%, I2 index = 100%], 48% in sheep (95% CI = 27-70%, I2 = 99%) and 21% in camels (95% CI = 7-35%, I2 = 99%). Evidence of possible publication bias was found in both felids and sheep. CONCLUSIONS: This meta-analysis estimates a high prevalence of T. gondii infection in animal species which are of high economic and cultural importance to countries of this region. Hence, these findings provide valuable insight to public health authorities as well as economic and animal resources advisors in countries of the Arabian Peninsula.

Diversity of bacterial pathogens and their antimicrobial resistance profile among commensal rodents in Qatar.

Rodents are sources of many zoonotic pathogens that are of public health concern. This study investigated bacterial pathogens and assessed their antimicrobial resistance (AMR) patterns in commensal rodents in Qatar. A total of 148 rodents were captured between August 2019 and February 2020, and blood, ectoparasites, and visceral samples were collected. Gram-negative bacteria were isolated from the intestines, and blood plasma samples were used to detect antibodies against Brucella spp., Chlamydophila abortus, and Coxiella burnetii. PCR assays were performed to detect C. burnetii, Leptospira spp., Rickettsia spp., and Yersinia pestis in rodent tissues and ectoparasite samples. Antimicrobial resistance by the isolated intestinal bacteria was performed using an automated VITEK analyzer. A total of 13 bacterial species were isolated from the intestine samples, namely Acinetobacter baumannii, Aeromonas salmonicida, Citrobacter freundii, Citrobacter koseri, Enterobacter aerogenes, Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli, Hafnia alvei, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Providencia stuartii, Proteus mirabilis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella enterica. The majority of them were E. coli (54.63%), followed by P. mirabilis (17.59%) and K. pneumoniae (8.33%). Most of the pathogens were isolated from rodents obtained from livestock farms (50.46%), followed by agricultural farms (26.61%) and other sources (22.94%). No antibodies (0/148) were detected against Brucella spp., C. abortus, or C. burnetii. In addition, 31.58% (6/19) of the flea pools and one (1/1) mite pool was positive for Rickettsia spp., and no sample was positive for C. burnetii, Leptospira spp., and Y. pestis by PCR. A total of 43 (38%) bacterial isolates were identified as multidrug resistant (MDR), whereas A. salmonicida (n = 1) did not show resistance to any tested antimicrobials. Over 50% of bacterial MDR isolates were resistant to ampicillin, cefalotin, doxycycline, nitrofurantoin, and tetracycline. The presence of MDR pathogens was not correlated with rodent species or the location of rodent trapping. Seven (11.86%) E. coli and 2 (22.2%) K. pneumoniae were extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) producers. These findings suggest that rodents can be a source of opportunistic bacteria for human and animal transmission in Qatar. Further studies are needed for the molecular characterization of the identified bacteria in this study.

Transmission of yellow fever vaccine virus from breast feeding mothers to their infants: reporting of yellow fever virus (YFV) RNA detection in milk specimens.

Background: Because of yellow fever's serious impact on health, vaccination is the principal strategy to control the disease. Administration of the yellow fever vaccine to breastfeeding women should be before they complete 9 months post-delivery, in order to prevent transmission of the yellow fever vaccine virus to their infants through breast feeding. This study aimed to confirm whether the excretion of yellow fever vaccine virus is in milk of vaccinated breastfeeding mothers and to confirm the probable transmission to their infants through breast milk. Methods: Samples were taken as follows: one serum specimen was taken 3-14 days after the date of the vaccination, and breast milk specimens were taken at four different time points between 3-4 days apart. Specimens were obtained from eight nursing mothers, who received the YVF vaccine (17DD). Mothers were asymptomatic before and after the vaccine administration but their infants developed symptoms after administration. Maternal serum samples were tested for YFV specific IgM antibodies through immuno-fluorescent assay (IFA). RNA was extracted from serum and breast milk specimens and YFV RNA screened using real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Results: In total, five mothers (62.5%) were positive for YFV and two mothers (25%) had YFV RNA in serum. Among milk specimens, YFV RNA was detected during the four different mentioned collection times as follows (positive milk specimens/total milk specimens): 3/8 (37.5 %), 4/6 (66.6%) and 1/4(25%). RNA was completely undetectable in the last collection time. Conclusions: YFV transmission from mothers to their babies through breast-feeding was highly probable indicated by the temporal relationship to mother's YF vaccination.

Epidemiology and molecular characterization of re-emerged virulent strains of Peste des Petits Ruminants virus among sheep in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan.

BACKGROUND: Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a severe contagious viral disease, which mainly affects small ruminants. PPR is caused by a Morbillivirus that belongs to the family Paramyxoviridae. In this study 12 suspected PPR outbreaks among sheep and goats were investigated in four localities in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan, during 2015-2017. The causative agent was confirmed by a Sandwich Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (sELISA), and a Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) targeting a partial sequence of nucleocapsid protein gene (N- gene) and a partial sequence of fusion protein gene (F- gene). Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis were carried out on six N- gene based RT-PCR products selected from two outbreaks occurred on border and inner localities of Kassala State to determine the circulating lineages of PPRV strains. Identity percentages were determined between isolates in this study and previous Sudanese, and other (African and Asian) isolates which clustered along with them. RESULTS: Out of 30 samples, 22 (73.3%) were positive using sandwich ELISA. From 22 s ELISA positive samples, 17 (77.3%) were positive by Ngene based RT-PCR and only 7(43.8%) out of 16 positive samples by N gene based RT-PCR were positive using Fgene based RT-PCR. The sequencing and phylogenetic analysis confirmed involvement of the lineage IV of PPRV in outbreaks among small ruminants in Kassala State and high identity percentage between our isolates and previous Sudanese and other (African and Asian) isolates. CONCLUSIONS: The present study demonstrates that genetic relationship between PPRV strains circulating in sheep in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan, and PPRV strains characterized as lineage IV in neighboring African countries such as Eretria,Ethiopia, Egypt, and other Asian countries.

Rodent-Related Zoonotic Pathogens at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface in Qatar: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Rodents are one of the most diversified terrestrial mammals, and they perform several beneficial activities in nature. These animals are also important as carriers of many pathogens with public health importance. The current systematic review was conducted to formulate a true depiction of rodent-related zoonoses in Qatar. Following systematic searches on PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct, and Web of Science and a screening process, a total of 94 published articles were selected and studied. The studied articles reported 23 rodent-related zoonotic pathogens that include nine bacterial, eleven parasitic, and three viral pathogens, from which the frequently reported pathogens were Mycobacterium tuberculosis (32 reports), Escherichia coli (23), and Salmonella spp. (16). The possible pathway of entry of the rodent-borne pathogens can be the land port, seaports, and airport of Qatar through carrier humans and animals, contaminated food, and agricultural products. The pathogens can be conserved internally by rodents, pets, and livestock; by agricultural production systems; and by food marketing chains. The overall estimated pooled prevalence of the pathogens among the human population was 4.27% (95%CI: 4.03-4.51%; p < 0.001) with significant heterogeneity (I2 = 99.50%). The top three highest prevalent pathogens were M.tuberculosis (30.90%; 22.75-39.04%; p < 0.001; I2 = 99.70%) followed by Toxoplasmagondii (21.93%; 6.23-37.61%; p < 0.001; I2 = 99.30%) and hepatitis E virus (18.29%; 11.72-24.86%; p < 0.001; I2 = 96.70%). However, there is a knowledge gap about the listed pathogens regarding the occurrence, transmission pathways, and rodent role in transmission dynamics at the human-animal-environment interface in Qatar. Further studies are required to explore the role of rodents in spreading zoonotic pathogens through the One Health framework, consisting of zoologists, ecologists, microbiologists, entomologists, veterinarians, and public health experts in this country.

A Survey of Bluetongue Infection and Associated Risk Factors among the One-Humped Camel (Camelus dromedaries) in Gadarif State, Eastern Sudan.

Bluetongue (BT) is an infectious, noncontagious, vector-borne viral disease that affects wild and domestic ruminants transmitted by Culicoides spp. A cross-sectional study was carried out during the period 2016-2017 in Gadarif state. A total of 276 sera samples were collected from camels in six localities of Gadarif state, eastern Sudan, to investigate bluetongue virus (BTV) seroprevalence and associated risk factors of BTV infection including age, sex, breed, locality, and ecology of the region. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used for estimation of BTV seroprevalence rate. The overall BTV seroprevalence rate was 96.7% in the study area ranging from 93.5% to 100% in six screened localities with no significant differences. The findings revealed similar BTV seroprevalence rates in both males and females, but high rates were found in age group of less than one year and two to three years with estimated 100%. However, the lowest seroprevalence was found in the age group of five to four years with estimated BTV to be 92.3%. BTV seropositivity was not found to be statistically associated with examined different camel breeds which revealed 93%, 94.4%, 97.6%, and 97.8% seroprevalence in Bushari, Rashide, Arabi, and Anafi, breeds, respectively. Epidemiology of BTV assessment according to the ecology of the area showed high BTV seroprevalence in desert and savanna with estimated 100% and lower BTV seroprevalence in arid and rich savanna with estimated 94.8% and 95.7%, respectively. There was no significant association between BTV ELISA positivity and sex, breed, and ecology of the area.

Prevalence and risk factors of Hantavirus infection in patients undergoing hemodialysis in Khartoum, Sudan, in 2019: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Hantaviruses are enveloped negative sense RNA viruses that cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. This study aimed to identify the prevalence of Hantavirus IgG antibodies and possible risk factors for Hantaviruses infections among end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients attending the Dr Salma dialysis center in Sudan. METHODOLOGY: This was a cross-sectional study in which 91 ESRD patients and 30 healthy plasma samples were screened for Hantavirus IgG antibodies using ELISA. A questionnaire containing sociodemographics, history of rat exposure and clinical data information was filled in by each ESRD patient. RESULTS: In this study, 9 out of 91 ESRD patients (9.9%) tested positive for Hantaviruses antibodies (IgG) while none of the 30 healthy plasma samples showed seropositivity. There was no statistically significant association between age, gender, educational level and rat exposure and Hantavirus infection in ESRD patients (p>0.05). CONCLUSION: This study is the first to be conducted in Sudan regarding Hantaviruses and ESRD. The prevalence of Hantavirus antibodies among ESRD patients is high compared with findings reported in the literature from studies conducted on the same group of patients. It points to an interesting question as to whether Hantaviruses have an association with ESRD but further studies are needed before drawing any conclusions.

Prevalence of Antibodies to Simbu Serogroup Viruses in Cattle in Sudan.

The Simbu serogroup is one of the serogroups that belong to the Orthobunyavirus genus of the family Peribunyaviridae. Simbu serogroup viruses are transmitted mainly by Culicoides biting midges. Meager information is available on Simbu serogroup virus infection in ruminants in Sudan. Therefore, in this study, serological surveillance of Simbu serogroup viruses in cattle in seven states in Sudan was conducted during the period from May, 2015, to March, 2016, to shed some light on the prevalence of this group of viruses in our country. Using a cross-sectional design, 184 cattle sera were collected and tested by a commercial SBV ELISA kit which enables the detection of antibodies against various Simbu serogroup viruses. The results showed an overall 86.4% prevalence of antibodies to Simbu serogroup viruses in cattle in Sudan. Univariate analysis showed a significant association (p=0.007) between ELISA seropositivity and states where samples were collected. This study suggests that Simbu serogroup virus infection is present in cattle in Sudan. Further epizootiological investigations on Simbu serogroup viruses infection and virus species involved are warranted.

Serological Investigations of Bluetongue Virus (BTV) among Sheep and Goats in Kassala State, Eastern Sudan.

Bluetongue (BT) is an infectious, noncontagious, vector-borne viral disease of wild and domestic ruminants. BTV is a member of the Orbivirus genus of the family Reoviridae. The present study aimed to investigate the seroprevalence of BTV in sheep and goats in Kassala State, Sudan. It also aimed to determine risk factors associated with BTV infection. The study was carried out by a structured questionnaire survey, and a total of 809 serum samples were collected from sheep (n = 459) and goats (n = 350) from 9 different localities in Kassala state. These samples were analyzed using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA) for the detection of BTV antibodies. The overall seroprevalence of BTV was 91.2% (738/809). In goats, the prevalence of BTV antibodies was comparatively higher (100%) than in sheep (84.5%). The prevalence differed between localities and was the highest in the center section of Kassala and Western Kassala (100%). Animals aged 6-11 months were highly infected (93.9%) compared to 1-year-old (85.5%). Caprine species was more likely to be infected (100%) than ovine (84.5%), and females were highly infected (92.8%) than males (85.5%). BTV infections were higher in the winter season (91.4%). Risk factors that showed significant associations with cELISA positivity included locality and sex (p ≤ 0.003) and species and age (p ≤ 0.000). Factors significantly associated with cELISA positivity in multivariate analysis were localities, species, age, and sex. BTV infection is prevalent in sheep and goat populations in Kassala state.

First report on molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Reticuloendotheliosis virus in Sudan.

The reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV) group of retroviruses infects a wide range of avian species, including chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, quail, and prairie chickens. The infection can result in immunosuppression, runting syndrome, high mortality, acute reticular cell neoplasia, or T- and/or B-cell lymphoma. One PCR positive chicken spleen sample obtained in a previous study in addition to one Marek's disease and three fowl pox (FP) vaccine samples were investigated in this study. A PCR assay was performed to detect the presence of REV provirus DNA in these samples. The results indicated the contamination of fowl pox virus and Marek's disease vaccines with REV. In addition, detection of integration of REV inside the genome of fowl pox vaccine was confirmed using primers corresponding to the FPV DNA regions flanking the REV integration site. Alignments of two sequences, one from the spleen tissue and the other from contaminated FP vaccine with REV, with other REV (env) gene sequences obtained from GenBank indicated their high similarity. Furthermore, phylogenetic analysis indicated that the partial part of (env) gene of our two isolates was closely related to variants from India, USA, Taiwan, and China. These results confirmed the contamination of commercial fowl pox and Marek's disease vaccines used in Sudan with REV. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that the partial part of (env) gene sequences from Sudan was closely related to variants from India, USA, Taiwan, and China.

A molecular prevalence survey on Anaplasma infection among domestic ruminants in Khartoum State, Sudan.

This study was conducted in Khartoum State, Sudan to determine the prevalence and the risk factors associated with Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species infections in domestic ruminants. Blood samples were collected from a total of 594 animals from 32 different farms distributed in the three provinces of Khartoum State. Among the 196 cattle, 200 sheep, and 198 goats examined using PCR, 13.27%, 32.50%, and 35.86% were infected with Anaplasma spp., respectively, with an overall prevalence of 27.27%. Cattle were infected with A. marginale (10.71%), A. centrale (2.04%), and A. ovis (0.51%), while sheep and goats were infected with A. ovis being significantly higher compared with cattle. No Ehrlichia spp. was detected in domestic ruminant in Khartoum State. Prevalence rates of Anaplasma infections were highly associated with breed, location, season, and sex. The prevalence rates of Anaplasma infection were significantly higher in exotic goat breeds compared with indigenous, and the infection in sheep and cattle was significantly higher in summer and in autumn in goats. The Anaplasma spp. infection rate in goats was significantly higher in females. The infection rate was also significantly higher in Khartoum North in both sheep and goats. It could be concluded that Anaplasma infection is prevalent in small and large ruminants in Khartoum State. Therefore, further studies on the epidemiology of anaplasmosis, possible tick, lice, and flea vectors and reservoirs in Sudan are important.

Molecular Survey of Viral and Bacterial Causes of Childhood Diarrhea in Khartoum State, Sudan.

Diarrheal disease is a major public health problem for children in developing countries. Knowledge of etiology that causes diarrheal illness is essential to implement public health measures to prevent and control this disease. Published studies regarding the situation of childhood diarrhea in Sudan is scanty. This study aims to investigate viral and bacterial etiology and related clinical and epidemiological factors in children with acute diarrhea in Khartoum State, Sudan. A total of 437 fecal samples were collected from hospitalized children <5 years old with acute diarrhea, viral and bacterial pathogens were investigated by using two-tube multiplex RT-PCR. The genotypes of adenovirus and bocavirus were determined by sequencing. Viral diarrhea was identified in 79 cases (62 single and 17 co-infections) (18%), and bacterial diarrhea in 49 cases (37 single and 12 co-infections) (11.2%). Mixed infections in both groups totaled 19 samples (4.3%) with more than one pathogen, they were viral co-infections (n = 7, 36.8%) bacterial co-infections (n = 2, 10.5%) and viral bacterial co-infection (n = 10, 52.6%). Rotavirus (10.2%) was predominantly detected, followed by norovirus G2 (4.0%), adenovirus (1.6%), bocavirus (1%), and norovirus G1 (0.9%). Infection with astrovirus was not detected in this study. The Shigella -Enteroinvasive E.coli (EIEC) (8.9%) was the predominantly found bacterial pathogen, followed by Vibrio parahaemolyticus (0.9%), enterohaemorrhagic E.coli (EHEC) -Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) (0.6%) and Salmonella enteritidis (0.6%). V. cholerae, Yersinia enterocolitica and Campylobacter jejuni were not detected in this study. The phylogenetic tree identified adenovirus belonged to genotype 41 and bocavirus belonged to two different clades within human bocavirus 1. Our findings represent the first report that adenovirus 41 is a cause of diarrhea in Sudan and that human bocavirus 1 is the principal bocavirus strain circulating in Sudan. In conclusion, this is the first comprehensive report to elaborate the pathogen spectrum associated with childhood diarrhea in Khartoum State, Sudan. The results obtained in the present study highlighted the current epidemic situation, the diverse pathogens related to childhood diarrhea, and the importance and the urgency of taking appropriate intervention measures in Khartoum State, Sudan.

Molecular Detection of Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) Among Infants with Congenital Anomalies in Khartoum State, Sudan.

Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection still represents the most common potentially serious viral complication in humans and is a major cause of congenital anomalies in infants. This study is aimed to detect HCMV in infants with congenital anomalies. Study subjects consisted of infants born with neural tube defect, hydrocephalus and microcephaly. Fifty serum specimens (20 males, 30 females) were collected from different hospitals in Khartoum State. The sera were investigated for cytomegalovirus specific immunoglobin M (IgM) antibodies using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and for Cytomegalovirus DNA using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Out of the 50 sera tested, one patient's (2%) sample showed HCMV IgM, but with no detectable DNA, other 4(8.2 %) sera were positive for HCMV DNA but with no detectable IgM. Various diagnostic techniques should be considered to evaluate HCMV disease and routine screening for HCMV should be introduced for pregnant women in this setting. It is vital to initiate further research work with many samples from different area to assess prevalence and characterize HCMV and evaluate its maternal health implications.

Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Dairy Cattle with Reproductive Problems in Sudan.

Toxoplasmosis, caused by Toxoplasma gondii, is one of the most common parasitic infections of humans and other warm-blooded animals in most parts of the world. The disease is common among sheep and goats and it is recognized as one of the major causes of reproductive failure in these animals. Cattle, on the other hand, can be infected, but abortion or perinatal mortality has not been recorded. This survey was carried out to study the prevalence of this disease in cattle in Khartoum and Gazira States (Sudan). 181 sera samples collected from dairy cattle with reproductive problems were assayed for antibodies to T. gondii by ELISA. The prevalence rate of T. gondii antibodies in cattle at herd level was 44.8% (13/29). Herd level infection rates were 50% and 33.3% in Khartoum and Gazira States, respectively. The overall prevalence of T. gondii at individual level in both states was 13.3% (24/181). The prevalence was 12.7% (17/134), was 14.9% (7/47) in Khartoum and Gazira State, respectively. There was significantly higher (P < 0.05) prevalence of T. gondii antibodies in the age group less than one year old (36.4%) than in other age groups and in males (30.8%) than in females (11.9%) while no significant relationship was discerned regarding breed, location, season, or signs of reproductive disease.

Survey of causative agents for acute respiratory infections among patients in Khartoum-State, Sudan, 2010-2011.

BACKGROUND: This study was carried out to determine causative agents of acute respiratory illness of patients in Khartoum State, Sudan. METHODS: Four hundred patients experiencing respiratory infections within January-March 2010 and January-March 2011 were admitted at Khartoum Hospital and had their throat swab samples subjected to multiplex real-time RT-PCR to detect influenza viruses (including subtypes) and other viral agents. Isolation, nucleotide sequence and phylogenetic analysis on some influenza viruses based on the HA gene were done. RESULTS: Out of 400 patients, 66 were found to have influenza viruses (35, 27, 2, and 2 with types A, B, C, and A and B co-infections, respectively). Influenza viruses were detected in 28, 33 and 5 patients in the age groups <1, 1-10, and 11-30 years old, respectively but none in the 31-50 years old group. Out of 334 patients negative for influenza viruses, 27, 14, and 2 were positive for human respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus and adenovirus, respectively. Phylogenetic tree on influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 subtype shows that Sudan strains belong to the same clade and are related to those strains from several countries such as USA, Japan, Italy, United Kingdom, Germany, Russia, Greece, Denmark, Taiwan, Turkey and Kenya. Seasonal A H3 subtypes have close similarity to strains from Singapore, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, USA and Nicaragua. For influenza B, Sudan strains belong to two different clades, and just like influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 and A H3 subtypes, seem to be part of worldwide endemic population (Kenya, USA, Brazil, Russia, Taiwan and Singapore). CONCLUSIONS: In Sudan, the existence of respiratory viruses in patients with acute respiratory infection was confirmed and characterized for the first time by using molecular techniques.

Attenuation of Theileria lestoquardi infected cells and immunization of sheep against malignant ovine theileriosis.

Malignant ovine theileriosis caused by Theileria lestoquardi is an economically important disease infecting small ruminants in the Sudan. The disease causes massive losses among sheep in many regions of Northern Sudan. The present studies were done to isolate lymphoblastoid cells infected with malignant ovine theileriosis and attenuate them by passage using culture media to develop and produce schizonts candidate vaccine, then test its efficacy and safety by exposing immunized lambs to field challenge in an area endemic with T. lestoquardi. In the present experiments we isolated and established an in vitro culture of T. lestoquardi infected lymphoblast cell line. Long-term culture of T. lestoquardi infected lymphoplastoid cells was shown to result in attenuation of their virulence and lambs inoculated with different doses of such cells at passage 105 exhibited very mild reactions with fever that lasted for 1-5 days and parasitaemia of <0.2%. The experimental lambs immunized with this candidate vaccine were immune and protected when exposed to field challenge in an area endemic of ovine theileriosis, while morbidity and mortality among non-immunized animals reached 76.9% and 46.15%, respectively, and they exhibited the clinical signs of malignant ovine theileriosis that included, high fever, loss of appetite, enlargement of lymph nodes, jaundice, loss of weight and death. The present study demonstrates the efficacy and the safety of this attenuated cell line as a live attenuated candidate vaccine.

Comparison of Real-time PCR to ELISA for the detection of human cytomegalovirus infection in renal transplant patients in the Sudan.

BACKGROUND: This study was carried out to detect human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) IgG and IgM antibodies using an Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in renal transplant patients in Khartoum state, Sudan and to improve the diagnosis of HCMV through the introduction of Real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) testing. A total of 98 plasma samples were collected randomly from renal transplant patients at Ibin Sina Hospital and Salma Centre for Transplantation and Haemodialysis during the period from August to September 2006. RESULTS: Among the 98 renal transplant patients, 65 were males and 33 females. The results revealed that HCMV IgG was present in all patients' plasma 98/98 (100%), while only 6/98 (6.1%) had IgM antibodies in their plasma. HCMV DNA viral loads were detected in 32 patients 32/98 (32.7%) using Real-time PCR. CONCLUSIONS: The HCMV IgG results indicate a high prevalence of past HCMV infection in all tested groups, while the finding of IgM may reflect a recent infection or reactivation. HCMV detection by real-time PCR in the present study indicated a high prevalence among renal transplant patients in Khartoum. In conclusion, the prevalence of HCMV in Khartoum State was documented through detection of HCMV-specific antibodies. Further study using various diagnostic methods should be considered to determine the prevalence of HCMV disease at the national level.

First confirmed report of outbreak of malignant ovine theileriosis among goats in Sudan.

An outbreak of malignant ovine theileriosis among goats was confirmed and documented. In this outbreak, 16 out of 22 (72.7%) goats died within 4 days showing clinical signs of malignant ovine theileriosis as well as in the postmortem findings. The goats were reared in a mixed flock with sheep in Atbara Town, Northern Sudan. The infection was detected microscopically and confirmed serologically by IFA test and molecularly by PCR technique using specific primer for Theileria lestoquardi. Hyalomma anatolicum was the most prevalent (dominant) tick species found in the farm. It is recommended to undertake future research on the role of goats on the epidemiology of malignant ovine theileriosis.